Assignment No. 2
1. The Problem and its Background
How to identify a research problem?
1. Search for a problem.
2. Read more about your problem.
3. Take notes or keep a journal.
4. Seek professional advice.
5. Keep the topic interesting.
What to do: problem identification and definition
a. Follow a general procedure
b. Identifying the problem situation
c. Study the available research
d. Write statement identifying and defining the problem.
e. Have colleagues read your final statement identifying and defining the problem situation.
b. Sources of Problems
- Problems can be conceptualized at a number of levels. At one level we are all searching for the answer to the question “why do organisms behave the way they do?” Questions with more specificity could proceed from; why do humans behave the way they do, to how does reinforcement affect behavior, to how does reinforcement affect studying, to how does reinforcement affect studying for tests in university males.
A. Research Problem from Expert
The simplest source of a problem to solve is to have it given to you as a class assignment, as a directed research project, or as a task while you are an apprentice in someone's lab. You are told what problem to research and how to do it. This is probably an ideal way to assure that your first research topic is a good one.
Example: Students in Experimental Psychology were assigned the task of finding out if social attention made their roommate study more. They were told to measure the amount of time their roommate studied on days during which they expressed interest in their roommate's course material as compared to days when they refrained from talking about academic topics.
B. Research Problem from Folklore
Common beliefs, common sense, or proverbs could be right but on the other hand, they could also be wrong. You must verify that they are true before considering them as a source of knowledge. It is possible that some unverified beliefs have the roots of a better idea and therefore would be a worthy research topic. It is critical to note, however, that the task of research is not to simply validate or invalidate common sense but rather to come to understand nature.
Example: It's commonly believed that studying within the two hours preceding a test will decrease test scores. To research this belief a randomly selected half of a class was told to study immediately before taking a test while the other half was prohibited from studying before the test. This research was intended to determine whether or not studying immediately before a test decreased the points earned.
C. Research Problem From Insight
Sometimes people research an issue simply because it occurred to them and it seemed important. The systematic development of the idea is lacking. This is "intuitive" or good guess research. It is risky because you may not be able to get other researchers to understand why the research is important. It is fun because you get to do what interests you at the moment. Alternatively, it could be the application of a general rule of thumb or guessing that a new problem is actually a well-understood function in disguise.
Example: While feeling especially competent after explaining course material to three friends you realize that orally presenting material may help test performance. You conducted a study in which material was orally presented before the test on a random half of the occasions. The research was based on your insightful realization that oral presentation may increase test performance.
D. Research Problem from Informal Discussion
This is a research problem that some discussion group feels is interesting. Discussion among friends can often spark our interest in a problem or provides us with the reinforcers for pursuing a question.
Example: After telling a group of friends about your success with oral presentations on test taking, the group talks about it for awhile and becomes interested in the possibility of the subject becoming confused as well as doing better as a result of feedback from the listeners. The group provides you with the idea and the excitement to do research on how students can affect the accuracy of a teacher's understanding.
E. Research Problem from Knowledge of Techniques and Apparatus
This is the selection of a research topic based on your special knowledge outside the field. A technique or apparatus with which you are familiar can offer the potential for a major advance in the field of psychology. Sometimes we realize that we can apply a new technique or apparatus to an area to which it has not yet been applied. Because we are specially qualified to succeed, solving the problem can be especially gratifying.
Example: You may know about microelectronics and be good at detailed work. You find out that many researchers are anxious to discover the migration patterns of butterflies so you mount an integrated circuit transmitter on a butterfly and thereby trace the behavior of the free ranging butterfly.
F. Research Problem from Reading the Literature
These are research problems which capture your interest while reading. While reading you will often wonder why, or will disagree, or will realize that you have a better idea than the original author.
Example: While you were reading about jet lag and its effects on sleep the first night, you realize that the author failed to control for light cycle. You try stretching either the light period or stretching the dark period to make up the phase shift. You implement this by changing the cabin illumination period on various trans-Atlantic flights, and monitoring the passengers sleep for the next three days.
c. Problem Selection
1. The topic must be educational in nature. The educational nature of a topic implies that the topic must be such that is geared towards providing a solution to an educational problem. It must also satisfy one of the major objectives of educational research - extension of knowledge and making a meaningful contribution in the teaching - learning process.
2. The topic to be selected must be of interest to the researcher. A person's interest in a topic provides the motivation that will enable the researcher complete the investigation. Interest also makes for dedication and commitment in the course of the study.
3. Topic must be original: the originality of a topic first and foremost eliminates duplication. A duplicated research study amounts to waste of energy, time, material and financial resources, because solution to that problem has already been provided.
4. Topic must be researchable: a topic is said to be researchable if it lends itself to investigation through the collection and analysis of objective and relevant data.
5. Availability of time and financial resources: the topic must be such that can be completed within the time and money availably to the researchers. Excuses relating to time and financial handicaps are not tolerated in research. Many research studies are abandoned due to lack of time and financial resources.
6. Availability of data: the topic must be one in which the researcher can easily identify his subjects and means of collecting data from the subjects. Subjects in research may be human being, objects, events and structures such as buildings.
7. Facilities for data collecting must be available; such facilities like the libraries, computer and information centres. This is important for review of literature and analysis of data.
8. Topic must be significant: it must be capable of adding to new knowledge thereby providing solution to some knotty educational and social problems. Its findings must benefit some individuals.
d. Formulation of Research Problem
To produce a good research problem, here are some tips to consider and highlight some of the features of good questions.
Relevant
- The question will be of academic and intellectual interest to people in the field you have chosen to study. The question arises from issues raised in the literature or in practice.
You should be able to establish a clear purpose for your research in relation to the chosen field. For example, are you filling a gap in knowledge, analysing academic assumptions or professional practice, monitoring a development in practice, comparing different approaches or testing theories within a specific population?
Manageable
- You need to be realistic about the scope and scale of the project. The question you ask must be within your ability to tackle. For example, are you able to access people, statistics, or documents from which to collect the data you need to address the question fully? Are you able to relate the concepts of your research question to the observations, phenomena, indicators or variables you can access? Can this data be accessed within the limited time and resources you have available to you?
Sometimes a research question appears feasible, but when you start your fieldwork or library study, it proves otherwise. In this situation, it is important to write up the problems honestly and to reflect on what has been learnt. It may be possible, with your supervisor, to develop a contingency plan to anticipate possible problems of access.
Substantial and (within reason) original
- The question should not simply copy questions asked in other final year modules, or modules previously undertaken. It shows your own imagination and your ability to construct and develop research issues. And it needs to give sufficient scope to develop into a dissertation.
Consistent with the requirements of the assessment
- The question must allow you the scope to satisfy the learning outcomes of the course.
For example, you can choose to conduct a theoretical study, one that does not contain analysis of empirical data. In this case, it will be necessary for you to think carefully before making such a choice. You would be required to give an account of your methodology, to explain why theoretical analysis was the most appropriate way of addressing the question and how you have gone about using theoretical models to produce new insights about the subject.
Clear and simple
- The complexity of a question can frequently hide unclear thoughts and lead to a confused research process. A very elaborate research question, or a question which is not differentiated into different parts, may hide concepts that are contradictory or not relevant. This needs to be clear and thought-through, but it is one of the hardest parts of your work.
Equally, you may want to begin with your literature review and data collection and you may feel tempted to 'make do' with a broad and vague research question for the moment. However, a muddled question is likely to generate muddled data and equally muddled analysis.
If you create a clear and simple research question, you may find that it becomes more complex as you think about the situation you are studying and undertake the literature review. Having one key question with several sub-components will guide your research here.
Interesting
- This is essential. The question needs to intrigue you and maintain your interest throughout the project. There are two traps to avoid.
Some questions are convenient - the best you can come up with when you are asked to state a question on a form, maybe – or perhaps the question fits in with your units so you decide it will suffice.
Some questions are fads - they arise out of a particular set of personal circumstances, for example a job application. Once the circumstances change you can lose enthusiasm for the topic and it becomes very tedious.
Make sure that you have a real, grounded interest in your research question, and that you can explore this and back it up by academic and intellectual debate. It is your interest that will motivate you to keep working and to produce a good dissertation.
e. Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
2. Stating the Title of the Research - This should be short, sharp, and describe what your research is about: it may also be a
‘working title’ that you will revise as your project develops.
A good title should have the following properties:
1) The title needs to be very specific in nature
2) In spite of being specific it should also have the expressive power to show the entire scale of the research study in those few words.
3) It should tell the total nature of the subject.
4) It needs to be very definite and clear.
5) The title needs to be attractive and interesting enough to catch the attention of the readers.
* Standards in writing the title:
a. The title must be concise. It contains only the words enough to hint the content of the research. Omit phrases and words like:
• A Study of
• The Implications of
• A Comparative Study of• An Assessment of
• An Analysis of
• Inquiry
• Investigation
b. The title must be stated in declarative form, not interrogative form.
c.If the title exceeds beyond one line, it must be stated like V-form. Likewise, no title Shall be written in excess of three lines regardless the number of words.
3. Statement of the Problem
A problem statement is a concise description of the issues that need to be addressed by a problem solving team and should be presented to them (or created by them) before they try to solve the problem. When bringing together a team to achieve a particular purpose provide them with a problem statement. A good problem statement should answer these questions:
In project management, the problem statement is part of the project charter. It lists what's essential about the project and enables the project manager to identify the project scope as well as the project stakeholders.
A research-worthy problem statement is the description of an active challenge (i.e. problem) faced by researchers and/or practitioners that does not have adequate solutions available including the argumentation for its viability based on solid peer-reviewed sources as well as theoretical foundation. The research-worthy problem statement should address all six questions: what, how, where, when, why, and who. On the other hand, a statement of the problem is one or two sentences claim that outlines the problem that the study addresses. The statement of the problem should briefly address the question: What is the problem that the research will address?
Problem Statement If you are focusing on a problem, be sure to define and state it specifically enough that you can write about it. Avoid trying to investigate or write about multiple problems or about broad or overly ambitious problems. Vague problem definition leads to unsuccessful proposals and vague,unmanageable documents. Naming a topic is not the same as defining a problem.
Problem statements often have three elements:
4. Significance of the Problem
- The research question is one of the first methodological steps the investigator has to take when undertaking research. The research question must be accurately and clearly defined. Choosing a research question is the central element of both quantitative and qualitative research and in some cases it may precede construction of the conceptual framework of study. In all cases, it makes the theoretical assumptions in the framework more explicit, most of all it indicates what the researcher wants to know most and first. The student or researcher then carries out the research necessary to answer the research question, whether this involves reading secondary sources over a few days for an undergraduate term paper or carrying out primary research over years for a major project. Once the research is complete and the researcher knows the (probable) answer to the research question, writing can begin. In term papers, the answer to the question is normally given in summary in the introduction in the form of a thesis statement.
5. The Theoretical Framework of the Study
- Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge, within the limits of the critical bounding assumptions. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory which explains why the research problem under study exists.
- Importance of Theory
A theoretical framework consists of concepts, together with their definitions, and existing theory/theories that are used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that will relate it to the broader fields of knowledge in the class you are taking.
The theoretical framework is not something that is found readily available in the literature. You must review course readings and pertinent research literature for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.
The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways.
Reference: The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.
Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:
II. Purpose
Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to investigate relationships within social systems. To the end, the following roles served by a theory can help guide the development of your framework.*
Structure and Writing Style
- The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory, in which case, you are expected to test the validity of an existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena. Many social science research papers fit into this rubric. For example, Peripheral Realism theory, which categorizes perceived differences between nation-states as those that give orders, those that obey, and those that rebel, could be used as a means for understanding conflicted relationships among countries in Africa. A test of this theory could be the following: Does Peripheral Realism theory help explain intra-state actions, such as, the growing split between southern and northern Sudan that may likely lead to the creation of two nations?
- However, you may not always be asked by your professor to test a specific theory in your paper, but to develop your own framework from which your analysis of the research problem is derived. Given this, it is perhaps easiest to understand the nature and function of a theoretical framework if it is viewed as the answer to two basic questions:
In writing this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:
6. The Hypothesis
a. Types of Hypothesis
1. Null Hypothesis
- A type of hypothesis used in statistics that proposes that no statistical significance exists in a set of given observations. The null hypothesis attempts to show that no variation exists between variables, or that a single variable is no different than zero. It is presumed to be true until statistical evidence nullifies it for an alternative hypothesis.
2. Alternative Hypothesis
- denoted by H1 or Ha, is the hypothesis that sample observations are influenced by some non-random cause. An alternative hypothesis is one in which a difference (or an effect) between two or more variables is anticipated by the researchers; that is, the observed pattern of the data is not due to a chance occurrence. This follows from the tenets of science, in which empirical evidence must be found to refute the null hypothesis before one can claim support for an alternative hypothesis (i.e. there is in fact a reliable difference or effect in whatever is being studied). The concept of the alternative hypothesis is a central part of formal hypothesis testing. Alternative hypotheses can be non-directional or directional. If non-directional, an alternative hypothesis is tested with a two-tailed statistical test and is stated in words to the effect that.
3. Cause and Effect Statement
- Cause and effect statements are statements that demonstrate a relationship between two
or more things; the “things” are linked in such a way that the reader understands that one
“thing” caused the other “thing” to occur ; noting a relationship between actions or events such that one or more are the result of the other or others.
b. Directional and Non-Directional Hypothesis
- Hypotheses may be either directional, non-directional, or null. The specific wording of the hypothesis will depend upon whether the independent variable in question is qualitative or quantitative. In general, if the independent variable is qualitative, the hypothesis refers to group differences. For example, there will be differences between boys and girls in reading achievement. If the independent variable is quantitative, the hypothesis is written in the format of relationships among variables rather than group differences. For example, reading achievement is related to verbal recall ability. Specific differences among directional, non-directional, and null hypotheses are presented below, but first it is necessary to explain the types of relationships one may find among quantitative variables.
*When one wishes to express the nature of the relationship between two quantitative variables, there several possible variations on types of relationships. In most cases, at least in education and the social sciences, relationships among quantitative variables will follow either a positive, negative (inverse), or no relationship pattern. Others are possible (e.g., non-linear relationships).
*A positive relationship exists when two variables co-vary together in a similar manner; that is, when increases in one variable are associated with increases in another variable. So, in simpler terms, when one variable goes up , the other variable also goes up . For example, people with high levels of intelligence are expected to have higher grades in school; those with higher levels of motivation complete more work; the more publications a professor has in a given year, the higher the merit pay for that year.
*A negative relationship represents two variables that co-vary in opposite directions. Thus, when one variable increases , the other variable decreases ¯. A negative relationship is also referred to as an inverse relationship. Two examples of inverse relationships are: the greater one's belief in one's ability to learn, the lower one's anxiety about a course; the more associated one feels with school, the less likely one will drop out of school.
7. Scope and Delimitation of the Study
- The scope and delimitations are what your study is going to tackle and what your study is only going to tackle
Here are some hints and tips in writing the Scope and Delimitation:
- Indicate the principal variables, locale, timeframe and justification.
- To whom you research is directed to?
- What is the subject matter of the study?
- Where the study will take place?
- Indicate the timeframe. State the time coverage of the study.
- Don’t forget the limitation. What is the limitation of your study?
- What is the incapability of your research?
- Is it beneficial to all? Or to a certain person/institution only?
8. The Definition of Terms
- is usually an annex to a work (book, research paper, pamphlet, etc.) either at the beginning or more likely near the end with a list of acronyms, jargon, credits, etc. A glossary is another word that may describe Definition of Terms. A list of words found in the paper, book, or work that may need a further explanation to understand what that word means rather than giving a definition within the work. Often time scholars will fully understand the words used and don't need a definition immediately in the work. However, there are times that clarification is required and a section called "Definition of Terms" is beneficial and often required, especially in a thesis or investigatory project. Medical personnel use medical jargon but a layperson may not know what the term means, and can easily look it up for clarification in the "Definition of Terms".
- Problem - a question raised for inquiry, consideration or solution.
- Research Problem - an issue or concern that an investigator presents and justifies in a research study.
How to identify a research problem?
1. Search for a problem.
2. Read more about your problem.
3. Take notes or keep a journal.
4. Seek professional advice.
5. Keep the topic interesting.
What to do: problem identification and definition
a. Follow a general procedure
b. Identifying the problem situation
c. Study the available research
d. Write statement identifying and defining the problem.
e. Have colleagues read your final statement identifying and defining the problem situation.
b. Sources of Problems
- Problems can be conceptualized at a number of levels. At one level we are all searching for the answer to the question “why do organisms behave the way they do?” Questions with more specificity could proceed from; why do humans behave the way they do, to how does reinforcement affect behavior, to how does reinforcement affect studying, to how does reinforcement affect studying for tests in university males.
A. Research Problem from Expert
The simplest source of a problem to solve is to have it given to you as a class assignment, as a directed research project, or as a task while you are an apprentice in someone's lab. You are told what problem to research and how to do it. This is probably an ideal way to assure that your first research topic is a good one.
Example: Students in Experimental Psychology were assigned the task of finding out if social attention made their roommate study more. They were told to measure the amount of time their roommate studied on days during which they expressed interest in their roommate's course material as compared to days when they refrained from talking about academic topics.
B. Research Problem from Folklore
Common beliefs, common sense, or proverbs could be right but on the other hand, they could also be wrong. You must verify that they are true before considering them as a source of knowledge. It is possible that some unverified beliefs have the roots of a better idea and therefore would be a worthy research topic. It is critical to note, however, that the task of research is not to simply validate or invalidate common sense but rather to come to understand nature.
Example: It's commonly believed that studying within the two hours preceding a test will decrease test scores. To research this belief a randomly selected half of a class was told to study immediately before taking a test while the other half was prohibited from studying before the test. This research was intended to determine whether or not studying immediately before a test decreased the points earned.
C. Research Problem From Insight
Sometimes people research an issue simply because it occurred to them and it seemed important. The systematic development of the idea is lacking. This is "intuitive" or good guess research. It is risky because you may not be able to get other researchers to understand why the research is important. It is fun because you get to do what interests you at the moment. Alternatively, it could be the application of a general rule of thumb or guessing that a new problem is actually a well-understood function in disguise.
Example: While feeling especially competent after explaining course material to three friends you realize that orally presenting material may help test performance. You conducted a study in which material was orally presented before the test on a random half of the occasions. The research was based on your insightful realization that oral presentation may increase test performance.
D. Research Problem from Informal Discussion
This is a research problem that some discussion group feels is interesting. Discussion among friends can often spark our interest in a problem or provides us with the reinforcers for pursuing a question.
Example: After telling a group of friends about your success with oral presentations on test taking, the group talks about it for awhile and becomes interested in the possibility of the subject becoming confused as well as doing better as a result of feedback from the listeners. The group provides you with the idea and the excitement to do research on how students can affect the accuracy of a teacher's understanding.
E. Research Problem from Knowledge of Techniques and Apparatus
This is the selection of a research topic based on your special knowledge outside the field. A technique or apparatus with which you are familiar can offer the potential for a major advance in the field of psychology. Sometimes we realize that we can apply a new technique or apparatus to an area to which it has not yet been applied. Because we are specially qualified to succeed, solving the problem can be especially gratifying.
Example: You may know about microelectronics and be good at detailed work. You find out that many researchers are anxious to discover the migration patterns of butterflies so you mount an integrated circuit transmitter on a butterfly and thereby trace the behavior of the free ranging butterfly.
F. Research Problem from Reading the Literature
These are research problems which capture your interest while reading. While reading you will often wonder why, or will disagree, or will realize that you have a better idea than the original author.
Example: While you were reading about jet lag and its effects on sleep the first night, you realize that the author failed to control for light cycle. You try stretching either the light period or stretching the dark period to make up the phase shift. You implement this by changing the cabin illumination period on various trans-Atlantic flights, and monitoring the passengers sleep for the next three days.
c. Problem Selection
1. The topic must be educational in nature. The educational nature of a topic implies that the topic must be such that is geared towards providing a solution to an educational problem. It must also satisfy one of the major objectives of educational research - extension of knowledge and making a meaningful contribution in the teaching - learning process.
2. The topic to be selected must be of interest to the researcher. A person's interest in a topic provides the motivation that will enable the researcher complete the investigation. Interest also makes for dedication and commitment in the course of the study.
3. Topic must be original: the originality of a topic first and foremost eliminates duplication. A duplicated research study amounts to waste of energy, time, material and financial resources, because solution to that problem has already been provided.
4. Topic must be researchable: a topic is said to be researchable if it lends itself to investigation through the collection and analysis of objective and relevant data.
5. Availability of time and financial resources: the topic must be such that can be completed within the time and money availably to the researchers. Excuses relating to time and financial handicaps are not tolerated in research. Many research studies are abandoned due to lack of time and financial resources.
6. Availability of data: the topic must be one in which the researcher can easily identify his subjects and means of collecting data from the subjects. Subjects in research may be human being, objects, events and structures such as buildings.
7. Facilities for data collecting must be available; such facilities like the libraries, computer and information centres. This is important for review of literature and analysis of data.
8. Topic must be significant: it must be capable of adding to new knowledge thereby providing solution to some knotty educational and social problems. Its findings must benefit some individuals.
d. Formulation of Research Problem
To produce a good research problem, here are some tips to consider and highlight some of the features of good questions.
Relevant
- The question will be of academic and intellectual interest to people in the field you have chosen to study. The question arises from issues raised in the literature or in practice.
You should be able to establish a clear purpose for your research in relation to the chosen field. For example, are you filling a gap in knowledge, analysing academic assumptions or professional practice, monitoring a development in practice, comparing different approaches or testing theories within a specific population?
Manageable
- You need to be realistic about the scope and scale of the project. The question you ask must be within your ability to tackle. For example, are you able to access people, statistics, or documents from which to collect the data you need to address the question fully? Are you able to relate the concepts of your research question to the observations, phenomena, indicators or variables you can access? Can this data be accessed within the limited time and resources you have available to you?
Sometimes a research question appears feasible, but when you start your fieldwork or library study, it proves otherwise. In this situation, it is important to write up the problems honestly and to reflect on what has been learnt. It may be possible, with your supervisor, to develop a contingency plan to anticipate possible problems of access.
Substantial and (within reason) original
- The question should not simply copy questions asked in other final year modules, or modules previously undertaken. It shows your own imagination and your ability to construct and develop research issues. And it needs to give sufficient scope to develop into a dissertation.
Consistent with the requirements of the assessment
- The question must allow you the scope to satisfy the learning outcomes of the course.
For example, you can choose to conduct a theoretical study, one that does not contain analysis of empirical data. In this case, it will be necessary for you to think carefully before making such a choice. You would be required to give an account of your methodology, to explain why theoretical analysis was the most appropriate way of addressing the question and how you have gone about using theoretical models to produce new insights about the subject.
Clear and simple
- The complexity of a question can frequently hide unclear thoughts and lead to a confused research process. A very elaborate research question, or a question which is not differentiated into different parts, may hide concepts that are contradictory or not relevant. This needs to be clear and thought-through, but it is one of the hardest parts of your work.
Equally, you may want to begin with your literature review and data collection and you may feel tempted to 'make do' with a broad and vague research question for the moment. However, a muddled question is likely to generate muddled data and equally muddled analysis.
If you create a clear and simple research question, you may find that it becomes more complex as you think about the situation you are studying and undertake the literature review. Having one key question with several sub-components will guide your research here.
Interesting
- This is essential. The question needs to intrigue you and maintain your interest throughout the project. There are two traps to avoid.
Some questions are convenient - the best you can come up with when you are asked to state a question on a form, maybe – or perhaps the question fits in with your units so you decide it will suffice.
Some questions are fads - they arise out of a particular set of personal circumstances, for example a job application. Once the circumstances change you can lose enthusiasm for the topic and it becomes very tedious.
Make sure that you have a real, grounded interest in your research question, and that you can explore this and back it up by academic and intellectual debate. It is your interest that will motivate you to keep working and to produce a good dissertation.
e. Characteristics of a Good Research Problem
- novelty - is the quality of being new, or following from that, of being striking, original or unusual. Although it may be said to have an objective dimension, generally exists in the subjective perceptions of individuals.
- researchable - diligent and systematic inquiry into a subject in order to discover or revise facts, theories, etc. ; systematic investigation to establish facts or principles or to collect information on a subject
- logical - it describes the use of valid reasoning where it is used in most intellectual activities, including philosophy and science, or, second, it describes the study of modes of reasoning
- systematic - presented or formulated as a coherent body of ideas or principles; marked by thoroughness and regularity
2. Stating the Title of the Research - This should be short, sharp, and describe what your research is about: it may also be a
‘working title’ that you will revise as your project develops.
A good title should have the following properties:
1) The title needs to be very specific in nature
2) In spite of being specific it should also have the expressive power to show the entire scale of the research study in those few words.
3) It should tell the total nature of the subject.
4) It needs to be very definite and clear.
5) The title needs to be attractive and interesting enough to catch the attention of the readers.
* Standards in writing the title:
a. The title must be concise. It contains only the words enough to hint the content of the research. Omit phrases and words like:
• A Study of
• The Implications of
• A Comparative Study of• An Assessment of
• An Analysis of
• Inquiry
• Investigation
b. The title must be stated in declarative form, not interrogative form.
c.If the title exceeds beyond one line, it must be stated like V-form. Likewise, no title Shall be written in excess of three lines regardless the number of words.
3. Statement of the Problem
A problem statement is a concise description of the issues that need to be addressed by a problem solving team and should be presented to them (or created by them) before they try to solve the problem. When bringing together a team to achieve a particular purpose provide them with a problem statement. A good problem statement should answer these questions:
- What is the problem? This should explain why the team is needed.
- Who has the problem or who is the client/customer? This should explain who needs the solution and who will decide the problem has been solved.
- What form can the resolution be? What is the scope and limitations (in time, money, resources, technologies) that can be used to solve the problem? Does the client want a white paper? A web-tool? A new feature for a product? A brainstorming on a topic?
In project management, the problem statement is part of the project charter. It lists what's essential about the project and enables the project manager to identify the project scope as well as the project stakeholders.
A research-worthy problem statement is the description of an active challenge (i.e. problem) faced by researchers and/or practitioners that does not have adequate solutions available including the argumentation for its viability based on solid peer-reviewed sources as well as theoretical foundation. The research-worthy problem statement should address all six questions: what, how, where, when, why, and who. On the other hand, a statement of the problem is one or two sentences claim that outlines the problem that the study addresses. The statement of the problem should briefly address the question: What is the problem that the research will address?
Problem Statement If you are focusing on a problem, be sure to define and state it specifically enough that you can write about it. Avoid trying to investigate or write about multiple problems or about broad or overly ambitious problems. Vague problem definition leads to unsuccessful proposals and vague,unmanageable documents. Naming a topic is not the same as defining a problem.
Problem statements often have three elements:
- the problem itself, stated clearly and with enough contextual detail to establish why it is important;
- the method of solving the problem, often stated as a claim or a working thesis;
- the purpose, statement of objective and scope of the document the writer is preparing.
4. Significance of the Problem
- The research question is one of the first methodological steps the investigator has to take when undertaking research. The research question must be accurately and clearly defined. Choosing a research question is the central element of both quantitative and qualitative research and in some cases it may precede construction of the conceptual framework of study. In all cases, it makes the theoretical assumptions in the framework more explicit, most of all it indicates what the researcher wants to know most and first. The student or researcher then carries out the research necessary to answer the research question, whether this involves reading secondary sources over a few days for an undergraduate term paper or carrying out primary research over years for a major project. Once the research is complete and the researcher knows the (probable) answer to the research question, writing can begin. In term papers, the answer to the question is normally given in summary in the introduction in the form of a thesis statement.
5. The Theoretical Framework of the Study
- Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge, within the limits of the critical bounding assumptions. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory which explains why the research problem under study exists.
- Importance of Theory
A theoretical framework consists of concepts, together with their definitions, and existing theory/theories that are used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that will relate it to the broader fields of knowledge in the class you are taking.
The theoretical framework is not something that is found readily available in the literature. You must review course readings and pertinent research literature for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.
The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways.
- An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically.
- The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
- Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions of why and how. It permits you to move from simply describing a phenomenon observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
- Having a theory helps you to identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest. It alerts you to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.
Reference: The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.
Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:
- Examine your thesis title and research problem. The research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework.
- Brainstorm on what you consider to be the key variables in your research. Answer the question, what factors contribute to the presumed effect?
- Review related literature to find answers to your research question.
- List the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these variables into independent and dependent categories.
- Review the key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings and choose the theory or theories that can best explain the relationships between the key variables in your study [note the Writing Tip on this page].
- Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out their relevance to your research.
II. Purpose
Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to investigate relationships within social systems. To the end, the following roles served by a theory can help guide the development of your framework.*
- Means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded for future use,
- Response to new problems that have no previously identified solutions strategy,
- Means for identifying and defining research problems,
- Means for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research problems,
- Way of telling us that certain facts among the accumulated knowledge are important and which facts are not,
- Means of giving old data new interpretations and new meaning,
- Means by which to identify important new issues and prescribe the most critical research questions that need to be answered to maximize understanding of the issue,
- Means of providing members of a professional discipline with a common language and a frame of reference for defining boundaries of their profession, and
- Means to guide and inform research so that it can, in turn, guide research efforts and improve professional practice.
Structure and Writing Style
- The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory, in which case, you are expected to test the validity of an existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena. Many social science research papers fit into this rubric. For example, Peripheral Realism theory, which categorizes perceived differences between nation-states as those that give orders, those that obey, and those that rebel, could be used as a means for understanding conflicted relationships among countries in Africa. A test of this theory could be the following: Does Peripheral Realism theory help explain intra-state actions, such as, the growing split between southern and northern Sudan that may likely lead to the creation of two nations?
- However, you may not always be asked by your professor to test a specific theory in your paper, but to develop your own framework from which your analysis of the research problem is derived. Given this, it is perhaps easiest to understand the nature and function of a theoretical framework if it is viewed as the answer to two basic questions:
- What is the research problem/question? [e.g., "How should the individual and the state relate during periods of conflict?"]
- Why is your approach a feasible solution? [I could choose to test Instrumentalist or Circumstantialists models developed among Ethnic Conflict Theorists that rely upon socio-economic-political factors to explain individual-state relations and to apply this theoretical model to periods of war between nations].
In writing this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:
- Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific theories that underpin your study. This includes noting who the key theorists are in the field who have conducted research on the problem you are investigating and, when necessary, the historical context that supports the formulation of that theory. This latter element is particularly important if the theory is relatively unknown or it is borrowed from another discipline.
- Position your theoretical framework within a broader context of related frameworks, concepts, models, or theories. There will likely be several concepts, theories, or models that can be used to help develop a framework for understanding the research problem. Therefore, note why the framework you've chosen is the appropriate one.
- The present tense is used when writing about theory.
- You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible. Later, your discussion of methodology should be linked back to this theoretical framework.
- Don’t just take what the theory says as a given! Reality is never accurately represented in such a simplistic way; if you imply that it can be, you fundamentally distort a reader's ability to understand the findings that emerge. Given this, always note the limitiations of the theoretical framework you've chosen [i.e., what parts of the research problem require further investigation because the theory does not explain a certain phenomena].
6. The Hypothesis
- Hypothesis - a proposition, or set of propositions, set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena, either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide investigation (working hypothesis) or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts.
a. Types of Hypothesis
1. Null Hypothesis
- A type of hypothesis used in statistics that proposes that no statistical significance exists in a set of given observations. The null hypothesis attempts to show that no variation exists between variables, or that a single variable is no different than zero. It is presumed to be true until statistical evidence nullifies it for an alternative hypothesis.
2. Alternative Hypothesis
- denoted by H1 or Ha, is the hypothesis that sample observations are influenced by some non-random cause. An alternative hypothesis is one in which a difference (or an effect) between two or more variables is anticipated by the researchers; that is, the observed pattern of the data is not due to a chance occurrence. This follows from the tenets of science, in which empirical evidence must be found to refute the null hypothesis before one can claim support for an alternative hypothesis (i.e. there is in fact a reliable difference or effect in whatever is being studied). The concept of the alternative hypothesis is a central part of formal hypothesis testing. Alternative hypotheses can be non-directional or directional. If non-directional, an alternative hypothesis is tested with a two-tailed statistical test and is stated in words to the effect that.
3. Cause and Effect Statement
- Cause and effect statements are statements that demonstrate a relationship between two
or more things; the “things” are linked in such a way that the reader understands that one
“thing” caused the other “thing” to occur ; noting a relationship between actions or events such that one or more are the result of the other or others.
b. Directional and Non-Directional Hypothesis
- Hypotheses may be either directional, non-directional, or null. The specific wording of the hypothesis will depend upon whether the independent variable in question is qualitative or quantitative. In general, if the independent variable is qualitative, the hypothesis refers to group differences. For example, there will be differences between boys and girls in reading achievement. If the independent variable is quantitative, the hypothesis is written in the format of relationships among variables rather than group differences. For example, reading achievement is related to verbal recall ability. Specific differences among directional, non-directional, and null hypotheses are presented below, but first it is necessary to explain the types of relationships one may find among quantitative variables.
*When one wishes to express the nature of the relationship between two quantitative variables, there several possible variations on types of relationships. In most cases, at least in education and the social sciences, relationships among quantitative variables will follow either a positive, negative (inverse), or no relationship pattern. Others are possible (e.g., non-linear relationships).
*A positive relationship exists when two variables co-vary together in a similar manner; that is, when increases in one variable are associated with increases in another variable. So, in simpler terms, when one variable goes up , the other variable also goes up . For example, people with high levels of intelligence are expected to have higher grades in school; those with higher levels of motivation complete more work; the more publications a professor has in a given year, the higher the merit pay for that year.
*A negative relationship represents two variables that co-vary in opposite directions. Thus, when one variable increases , the other variable decreases ¯. A negative relationship is also referred to as an inverse relationship. Two examples of inverse relationships are: the greater one's belief in one's ability to learn, the lower one's anxiety about a course; the more associated one feels with school, the less likely one will drop out of school.
7. Scope and Delimitation of the Study
- The scope and delimitations are what your study is going to tackle and what your study is only going to tackle
Here are some hints and tips in writing the Scope and Delimitation:
- Indicate the principal variables, locale, timeframe and justification.
- To whom you research is directed to?
- What is the subject matter of the study?
- Where the study will take place?
- Indicate the timeframe. State the time coverage of the study.
- Don’t forget the limitation. What is the limitation of your study?
- What is the incapability of your research?
- Is it beneficial to all? Or to a certain person/institution only?
8. The Definition of Terms
- is usually an annex to a work (book, research paper, pamphlet, etc.) either at the beginning or more likely near the end with a list of acronyms, jargon, credits, etc. A glossary is another word that may describe Definition of Terms. A list of words found in the paper, book, or work that may need a further explanation to understand what that word means rather than giving a definition within the work. Often time scholars will fully understand the words used and don't need a definition immediately in the work. However, there are times that clarification is required and a section called "Definition of Terms" is beneficial and often required, especially in a thesis or investigatory project. Medical personnel use medical jargon but a layperson may not know what the term means, and can easily look it up for clarification in the "Definition of Terms".