2. research in ethics
Discuss / explain briefly research in ethics
- An important aspect of research is the respect and consideration we show to the people who participate in the study with us. These people are our colleagues and our subjects. Research ethics, now often called the responsible conduct of research, is a large area, and this discussion will only touch on a few of the major issues. There are many resources that discuss both the ethics of working with colleagues and the ethics of using human subjects in research. A good web site to explore both of these aspects is the Sigma Xi - New Ethical Challenges in Science and Technology.
- Involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics involving scientific research. These include the design and implementation of research involving human experimentation, animal experimentation, various aspects of academic scandal, including scientific misconduct (such as fraud, fabrication of data and plagiarism), whistle blowing; regulation of research, etc. Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research. The key agreement here is the 1974 Declaration of Helsinki. The Nuremberg Code is a former agreement, but with many still important notes. Research in the social sciences presents a different set of issues than those in medical research. The scientific research enterprise is built on a foundation of trust. Scientists trust that the results reported by others are valid. Society trusts that the results of research reflect an honest attempt by scientists to describe the world accurately and without bias. But this trust will endure only if the scientific community devotes itself to exemplifying and transmitting the values associated with ethical scientific conduct. There are many ethical issues to be taken into serious consideration for research. Sociologists need to be aware of having the responsibility to secure the actual permission and interests of all those involved in the study. They should not misuse any of the information discovered, and there should be a certain moral responsibility maintained towards the participants. There is a duty to protect the rights of people in the study as well as their privacy and sensitivity. The confidentiality of those involved in the observation must be carried out, keeping their anonymity and privacy secure. As pointed out in the BSA for Sociology, all of these ethics must be honored unless there are other overriding reasons to do so - for example, any illegal or terrorist activity. Research ethics in a medical context is dominated by principal ism, an approach that has been criticized as being contextualized
- Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. Many government agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) have ethics rules for funded researchers. Other influential research ethics policies include the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Bio-medical Journals (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors), the Chemist's Code of Conduct (American Chemical Society), Code of Ethics (American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science) Ethical Principles of Psychologists (American Psychological Association), Statements on Ethics and Professional Responsibility (American Anthropological Association), Statement on Professional Ethics (American Association of University Professors), the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association).
The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principals that various codes address*:
Honesty
-Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.
Objectivity
-Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.
Integrity
-Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness
-Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
Openness
-Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property
-Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality
-Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication
-Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring
-Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
Respect for colleagues
-Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility
-Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination
-Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Competence
-Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
Legality
-Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care
-Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection
- When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
* Adapted from Shamoo A and Resnik D. 2009. Responsible Conduct of Research, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press).
Ethical Decision Making
- Suppose you want to engage in some activity, but there appears to be an ethical or moral issue that could interfere with your plans. If so, then you need to analyze that issue in order to decide if you can engage in that activity.
- If you can find a solution to each ethical issue, then there will no longer be any ethical objections to your carrying out the activity. You must be careful that your solutions are true solutions and not just rationalizations.
Ethical decision making is a four step process:
- An important aspect of research is the respect and consideration we show to the people who participate in the study with us. These people are our colleagues and our subjects. Research ethics, now often called the responsible conduct of research, is a large area, and this discussion will only touch on a few of the major issues. There are many resources that discuss both the ethics of working with colleagues and the ethics of using human subjects in research. A good web site to explore both of these aspects is the Sigma Xi - New Ethical Challenges in Science and Technology.
- Involves the application of fundamental ethical principles to a variety of topics involving scientific research. These include the design and implementation of research involving human experimentation, animal experimentation, various aspects of academic scandal, including scientific misconduct (such as fraud, fabrication of data and plagiarism), whistle blowing; regulation of research, etc. Research ethics is most developed as a concept in medical research. The key agreement here is the 1974 Declaration of Helsinki. The Nuremberg Code is a former agreement, but with many still important notes. Research in the social sciences presents a different set of issues than those in medical research. The scientific research enterprise is built on a foundation of trust. Scientists trust that the results reported by others are valid. Society trusts that the results of research reflect an honest attempt by scientists to describe the world accurately and without bias. But this trust will endure only if the scientific community devotes itself to exemplifying and transmitting the values associated with ethical scientific conduct. There are many ethical issues to be taken into serious consideration for research. Sociologists need to be aware of having the responsibility to secure the actual permission and interests of all those involved in the study. They should not misuse any of the information discovered, and there should be a certain moral responsibility maintained towards the participants. There is a duty to protect the rights of people in the study as well as their privacy and sensitivity. The confidentiality of those involved in the observation must be carried out, keeping their anonymity and privacy secure. As pointed out in the BSA for Sociology, all of these ethics must be honored unless there are other overriding reasons to do so - for example, any illegal or terrorist activity. Research ethics in a medical context is dominated by principal ism, an approach that has been criticized as being contextualized
- Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that many different professional associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted specific codes, rules, and policies relating to research ethics. Many government agencies, such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) have ethics rules for funded researchers. Other influential research ethics policies include the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Bio-medical Journals (International Committee of Medical Journal Editors), the Chemist's Code of Conduct (American Chemical Society), Code of Ethics (American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science) Ethical Principles of Psychologists (American Psychological Association), Statements on Ethics and Professional Responsibility (American Anthropological Association), Statement on Professional Ethics (American Association of University Professors), the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association).
The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principals that various codes address*:
Honesty
-Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.
Objectivity
-Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.
Integrity
-Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness
-Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
Openness
-Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property
-Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality
-Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication
-Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring
-Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
Respect for colleagues
-Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility
-Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination
-Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Competence
-Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
Legality
-Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care
-Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection
- When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
* Adapted from Shamoo A and Resnik D. 2009. Responsible Conduct of Research, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press).
Ethical Decision Making
- Suppose you want to engage in some activity, but there appears to be an ethical or moral issue that could interfere with your plans. If so, then you need to analyze that issue in order to decide if you can engage in that activity.
- If you can find a solution to each ethical issue, then there will no longer be any ethical objections to your carrying out the activity. You must be careful that your solutions are true solutions and not just rationalizations.
Ethical decision making is a four step process:
- First, define the ethical issue that is facing you.
- Second, brainstorm possible solutions to the issue, i.e., what can I do to resolve the issue so it will not affect my activities.
- Third, rate your ideas for solutions using the scale below:
- This idea neutralizes the issue.
- This idea reduces the effect of the issue, but it is not a complete solution.
- This idea does not resolve the issue.
- Fourth,
- If one of your solutions is rated 1, then you can implement the solution and carry on with your activities.
- If none of your solutions is a 1, then examine the solutions rated as 2. You may need to break down the issue into smaller more specific issues in order to develop solutions.
- If all of your ideas are rated as 3, then you need to redefine the issue more carefully, and brainstorm possible solutions again.
- Finally, if you cannot resolve the issue, you need to abandon your plans for that activity.